Managerial Skills Essay

In order for managers to be effective, they must have a clear understanding of whether different skills are important in their managerial role. In addition, managers must have a mutual understanding of the skills and responsibilities necessary for other managers across similar and different organizational levels and functions ([10] Kraut et al. , 1989). If these skills and responsibilities are not clearly understood, managers will neither be able to coordinate work effectively, communicate expectations, deliver feedback, nor be prepared for job transitions or other training and career development activities ([10] Kraut et al. , 1989). In short, understanding whether certain managerial skills are important to a manager’s job is essential. A number of researchers have investigated the roles, tasks, or activities of managers (e.g. [18] Mintzberg, 1973; [13] Luthans, 1988; [10] Kraut et al. , 1989). However, these studies are over a decade old, some more than two or three decades, and have not specifically examined skills. The world of work has changed since these studies, most notably due to organizational downsizing, technology, and the globalization of the workplace. Skills important to managers in the late 1980s and early 1990s may not be as important today. As times change, researchers should update important findings to determine if those findings are still applicable ([4] Cronbach, 1975), especially when considering that the skills and roles of managers need to be clearly defined and understood to effectively teach, select, develop, and promote these individuals in the workplace. Based on results of a study of more than 14,000 managers over two distinct time periods, this paper will highlight whether the importance of certain managerial skills changed over a 15-year time period, and determine which skills are needed at different organizational levels and across organizational functions from the opinions of managers themselves. Our main research question is, to what extent has the importance of certain managerial skills changed, or remained constant, over time, and whether certain skills are important based on organizational level and function. Studies of managers [18] Mintzberg (1973) provided one of the most influential works on managerial roles. Prior to his research, the roles of managers were understood to be embedded in a rigid functional approach of planning jobs, organizing staff, and leading personnel ([20] Pearson and Chatterjee, 2003). However, Mintzberg observed that managers worked at a much faster pace during which they were required to address a range of issues. The job of the manager required an ability to handle more complex roles than those described by classical management theory. Using a descriptive diary method to observe managers at work, Mintzberg identified ten roles of managerial work, which were divided into three categories: interpersonal roles, informational roles, and decisional roles. Expanding on [18] Mintzberg’s (1973) work, [10] Kraut et al. (1989) investigated the differences between managerial levels in the perception of role importance. They identified seven major factors of management tasks including: managing individual performance; instructing subordinates; planning and allocating resources; coordinating interdependent groups; managing group performance; monitoring the business environment; and representing one’s staff. Their findings also revealed distinct differences in role importance based on the level of the manager. For instance, first-level managers reported that managing individual performance and instructing subordinates were the most important set of activities in their job. However, as managers moved up the management hierarchy to the level of middle manager, the importance of these activities dropped and more focus was placed on tasks related to linking groups. The act of linking groups included planning and resource allocation, managing group performance, and coordinating interdependent groups. Executive managers took an even broader view of their job as evidenced by their high importance ratings related to monitoring the environment including business, economic, and social trends. The only commonality among the different managerial levels was the importance they placed on representing their staff; over 50 per cent of managers at each level rated representing staff of â€Å"utmost† or â€Å"considerable importance.† [13] Luthans’ (1988) research also examined differences between top and middle managers. However the focus was more on the distinction between the activities of an effective manager versus a successful manager. Effective managers were identified by a high level of performance in the unit they are responsible for, whereas successful managers were recognized by their rapid promotions within an organization. The activities that characterize effective managers included spending time on communication and human resource management, which can lead to long-term results. In contrast, successful managers spent more time on networking and aimed for short-term results. In addition to differences between levels, [10] Kraut et al. (1989) also compared managerial activities across the different organizational functions of marketing, manufacturing, and administration. For example, a greater percentage of marketing managers rated monitoring the outside environment more important when compared to other managers. Alternately, fewer marketing managers rated instructing subordinates as important when compared to managers in manufacturing and administration. Managers from all three organizational functions indicated that activities involving coordinating interdependent groups were important. The present study will attempt to expand on similar research such as those previously mentioned. First, this research examines managerial skills, which are much different than managerial roles, activities, or tasks. While past research has determined what roles or activities are important for managers and what tasks managers tend to spend much of their time on, this research attempts to determine what skills are important for managerial jobs. Second, this research will use opinions from practicing managers totaling more than 14,000 from two distinct time periods (1988-1992, and 2004-2006) to capture what skills have been important in the past, and determine whether those skills have changed in importance over time. In addition, this research will examine whether managerial skills are important across different organizational levels and organizational functions in the context of today’s work environment. The changing world of work The aforementioned research regarding the importance of managerial tasks, roles, and activities was conducted in the 1970s and 1980s. There is reason to believe that skills once deemed important for managers may have adjusted in relative importance since much has changed in the world of work since these studies. One can assume that the changes in the world of work may coincide with possible changes in the importance of different managerial skills. Organizations have become flatter and less hierarchical with fewer levels and more responsibilities ([2] Allen et al. , 2001; [16] McKinley et al. , 2000; [17] Miller, 1990). Also, organizational downsizing is commonplace due to the increasing need to reduce costs, to eliminate unnecessary levels of management, and to streamline operations ([5] DeMeuse et al. , 2004). As organizations become less hierarchical, there is reason to believe that the skills managers thought were important in the past may have changed in scope. Organizations also exist in a different environmental context than 15 years ago. Due to improved technology such as e-mail and the internet, changes have occurred in the way managers and co-workers interact. We have seen the emergence of the Internet as a major form of communication and e-commerce as a new source of business. Flexible work patterns and the ability to work in geographically dispersed teams is now a common reality in the workplace ([27] Wallace, 2004). These changes have cultivated the need for better communication, coordination, improved performance, team monitoring, and more interdependence and trust ([22], [21] Salas et al. , 2004, 2005; [28] Zaccaro et al. , 2004). Teams and organizations are increasingly becoming more global or virtual in nature. As a result, an awareness of different cultures and attention to multiculturalism and globalization is vital for the success of many managers. As organizations become more fast-paced and global, there is also speculation that the importance of different skills managers need may have shifted in scope. [7] Kanter (1989) argued that these rapid changes, spurred by technology and competitive pressures, have made traditional forms of organizing work obsolete. Managers may believe certain skills are important in order to be a partner with and empower employees to address business problems on their own and to work in cross-functional teams, which could be different than the skills believed to be important 15 years ago. Managers must fully understand their roles and responsibilities and become adept at a variety of skills to perform their job effectively ([1] Ahearn et al. , 2004; [6] Halbesleben et al. , 2003; [25] Stockdale and Crosby, 2004; [27] Wallace, 2004; [28] Zaccaro et al. , 2004). As previously mentioned, understanding the skills of managers is essential to coordinate work effectively, communicate expectations, deliver feedback, and for training and career development ([10] Kraut et al. , 1989). It is unknown whether the changes over the past 15 years that have occurred in an organizational and global context have also coincided with possible changes in importance of managerial skills over time. A recent case study reexamined [18] Mintzberg’s (1973) work 30 years after the original research by studying the pattern of behavior among four executives in Sweden ([26] Tengblad, 2006). The findings revealed that modern executives are more oriented towards working with subordinates in group-settings and focus more time on giving information rather than performing administrative duties. However, Tengblad noted significant similarities with Mintzberg’s original study, indicating that claims of the emergence of radically different managerial work may be exaggerated. However, due to the small sample size and lack of empirical data in that study, it is important that further work specifically examine the modern skills of managers with a wide range of managers and ample sample size. In other words, are the skills thought to be important to managers 15 years ago still important to managers in today’s work context? The present research will attempt to answer this question and provide relevant present-day information for managers and those who work with, train and develop them, by re-examining the importance of managerial skills across two distinct time periods and across both organizational level and function in the context of today’s work environment. Method Participants This research used data from two waves of managers engaged in a leadership development program from a leadership development provider in order to compare differences in managerial skills over time. The first wave consisted of 7,389 managers from the USA involved in a leadership development process between 1988 and 1992. The second wave consisted of 7,410 managers from the USA who were involved in a leadership development process between 2004 and 2006. Because of data housing and management issues, demographic data could not be given for the first wave of participants. However, aggregate biographical data from the leadership development provider from the time period of 1988 to 1992 revealed that leadership development participants in general were similar in terms of age, gender, race, education, and job status to those of 2004 to 2006. Demographic data in aggregate could be given for the 7,410 participants of the second wave. The average age of the managers in the second wave was 41.73 years old, 59 per cent were male, 86 per cent were white, 69 per cent worked in the private sector and 77 per cent had a minimum of a bachelor’s degree. Managers came from over 60 organizational types (e.g. aerospace and defense, finance, communications, government, education) and over 1,300 companies. In addition, 999 managers (13.5 per cent) were first-level managers (forepersons, crew chiefs, section supervisors), 3,136 (42.3 per cent) were middle-level managers (office managers, professional staff, mid-level administrators), 2,197 (29.6 per cent) were upper-middle managers (department executives, plant managers, senior professional staff), and 1,078 (14.6 per cent) were top or executive level managers (chief executives or operating officers, presidents, vice presidents, directors). Measure Managerial skills . Data determining the importance of managerial skills was collected from SKILLSCOPE ®[1] a 360-degree instrument that assesses job related strengths and weaknesses. The instrument has 98 items that are organized into 15 skill clusters. These clusters represent 15 skills and roles managers need in order to be effective in their job which are part of Mintzberg’s three categories (interpersonal, informational, and decisional) and two other categories (personal resources and effective use of self). The conceptual basis for SKILLSCOPE ® is research which focused on managerial skills, roles and tasks (e.g. [3] Beggs and Doolittle, 1988; [8] Kaplan, 1987; [9] Kotter, 1982; [14] McCall and Kaplan, 1984; [15] McCall et al. , 1979; [18], [19] Mintzberg, 1973, 1990; [23] Sayles, 1979; [24] Stewart, 1976). As part of their leadership development process, managers chose which five of the 15 skill clusters were the most important for their current job. Table I [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] describes each skill cluster. Results A frequency count of the data revealed the skills that are most important for managers in their current job. Result show that both â€Å"Communicating information, ideas† (60.1 per cent of the managers in 1988-1992 and 63 per cent of the managers in 2004-2006) and â€Å"Taking actions, making decisions, following through† (59.7 per cent of the managers in 1988-1992 and 62.9 per cent of the managers in 2004-2006) were the most important skills across all managers. On the other hand, â€Å"Self-management, self-insight, self-development† and â€Å"Openness to influence; flexibility† were the least important for managers in 1988 through 1992 (8.6 per cent and 8.8 per cent respectively as one of the most important skills needed) and managers in 2004 through 2006 (10.9 per cent and 7.2 per cent selected respectively as one of the most important skills needed). Table II [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] shows a comparison between managers from 1988-1992 and managers from 2004-2006. Many of the skills were similar in importance for both waves of managers. However, there were three skill clusters with differences of more than 10 percentage points that should be noted. First, 39.9 per cent of 2004-2006 managers rated â€Å"Relationships† as one of five important skill clusters which was an increase from 29.4 per cent of managers in 1988-1992. Second, 33 per cent of 2004-2006 managers rated â€Å"Administrative/organizational ability† as one of five important skill clusters, a decrease from the 45 per cent of managers was from 1988-1992. Finally, 31.7 per cent of managers from 2004-2006 rated â€Å"Time management† as one of five important skill clusters which was an increase from the 19.7 per cent of managers in 1988-1992. The next set of analyses focused only on the 2004-2006 managers. Examining the results as a whole may mask important findings based on managerial levels. Consequently, we analyzed the importance of managerial skills across the four managerial levels for the present study, similar to [10] Kraut et al. (1989). Figure 1 [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] displays the importance rankings for each skill sorted by managerial level. â€Å"Communicating information, ideas† and â€Å"Taking action, making decisions, following through† were the two most important skills for all managerial levels with the exception of first-level managers. While â€Å"Taking action, making decisions, following through† ranked as the most important for first-level managers, â€Å"Knowledge of job, business† ranked as second-most important, followed by â€Å"Communicating information, ideas†. On the other hand, â€Å"Openness to influence, flexibility† was the least important to managers at each level, again with the exception of first-level managers who believed â€Å"Risk-taking, innovation† was the least important, followed by â€Å"Openness to influence, flexibility†. In general, the importance rankings were similar across managerial levels, though there are some notable exceptions. First, â€Å"Getting information, making sense of it; problem identification† was less important for top/executive-level managers (48 per cent) than for other managerial levels (each over 55 per cent). Second, as managerial level increased, so did the importance of â€Å"Influencing, leadership, and power†, (from 21 per cent of first-level managers to 45 per cent of top/executive level managers), and of â€Å"Risk-taking, innovation† (from 7 per cent of first-level managers to 22 per cent of top/executive level managers). Last, as managerial level increased, the importance of two managerial skills decreased, namely â€Å"Knowledge of job, business† (from 63 per cent of first-level managers to 45 per cent of top/executive-level managers) and â€Å"Time management† (from 42 per cent of first-level managers to 19 per cent of top/executive-level managers). In addition, viewing the results from all managers in aggregate may also conceal important findings based specifically on job function, as managers in different functions may have different managerial challenges ([10] Kraut et al. , 1989). In order to account for this, the present study mirrored the data analysis of the [10] Kraut et al. (1989) study in that the levels of management were equally weighted in each function so that no one managerial level would have statistical influence over the other managerial levels, and managers from marketing (n =282), manufacturing (n =253), and administration (n =489) would be selected. Due to the functional diversity of the sample of the second wave, managers from engineering (n =413), human resources/training (n =345), operations (n =916) and sales (n =518) were also examined. Figure 2 [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] provides the rankings for the skills of managers across job function. It is interesting to note that the pattern of skill importance is similar across functions. For instance, â€Å"Communicating information, ideas† was most important for marketing, human resource, and sales managers, while â€Å"Taking action, making decisions, following through† was the most important managerial skill for manufacturing, administration, engineering, and operations. In fact, across the seven managerial functions studied, these two managerial skills were among the top three in importance for each managerial function. On the other hand, â€Å"Openness to influence; flexibility† was the least important to managers across all functions except for managers in human resources, who believed â€Å"Energy, drive, and ambition† was the least important. Some managerial skills were rated similarly in importance across managerial functions. For instance, between 22 per cent and 27 per cent of managers across different functions believed â€Å"Coping with pressure, adversity; integrity† was important. Also, between 8 per cent and 13 per cent of managers thought â€Å"Self-management, self-insight, self-development† was an important skill to have. There was variability among the importance of some skills across managerial function. For example, â€Å"Administrative/organizational ability† was important for less than 25 per cent of managers in marketing, manufacturing, and sales, but was important for 58 per cent of managers in administration. â€Å"Getting information, making sense of it; problem identification† was less important for sales managers (39 per cent) than it was for engineering managers (65 per cent). Regarding â€Å"Managing conflict; negotiation† it is interesting to note that most managers rated it the same in importance (between 27 per cent and 31 per cent) except managers from marketing, where only 17 per cent of managers thought it was important. Managers in manufacturing (25 per cent) and engineering (26 per cent) ranked â€Å"Relationships† less important than human resources (51 per cent) and sales (52 per cent) managers. â€Å"Selecting, developing, accepting people† was important to some managers in manufacturing and sales (both 35 per cent), but was not as important to marketing managers (12 per cent). Discussion In total, 30 years after [18] Mintzberg’s (1973) original study, [26] Tengblad (2006) found that while some things have changed, managerial work has remained the same, despite changes in the world of work. In a similar fashion, the present research attempted to determine whether the importance of skills managers need in their job have shifted over a 15-year time period. Though many have commented on how the world of work has changed over the past 15 years (e.g. [2] Allen et al. , 2001; [5] DeMeuse et al. , 2004; [7] Kanter, 1989; [16] McKinley et al. , 2000; [17] Miller, 1990; [22], [21] Salas et al. , 2004, 2005; [27] Wallace, 2004; [28] Zaccaro et al. , 2004), the data of the present research suggests that despite the changes in the work environment, the importance of certain managerial skills is somewhat similar. For instance, what was believed to be important in 1988-1992 (i.e. â€Å"Communicating information, ideas† and â€Å"Taking action, making decisions, following through†) is still considered important for managers today. In addition, skills that were not thought of as important in 1988-1992 (i.e. â€Å"Self-management, self-insight, self-development† and â€Å"Openness to influence; flexibility†) are still not thought of as important for managers in today’s work context. Despite these apparent similarities, there are some noteworthy differences between what managers thought was important 15 years ago and what managers think is important today. First, â€Å"Relationships† seem to be more important now than for managers 15 years ago. [26] Tengblad (2006) hinted at this with the finding that executives are concentrating more today (than 30 years ago) on working with others in a group setting. The increased importance of this skill cluster coincid ed with the changes in the organizational context that managers today must face. The use of communication technology, such as e-mail, and the existence of geographically dispersed teams require managers to be more deliberate in the effort they devote towards forming and maintaining relationships. The nonverbal cues that aid in face-to-face communication cannot be relied on in virtual relationships. By acknowledging and facing the challenges presented by these new forms of communication, managers can successfully execute their job requirements. In addition, the flattening of organizational hierarchies has forced a higher level of coordination and collaboration between peers. As more and more people work in an environment structured around the work team, the more likely a focus on building relationships will be encouraged. For instance, more time is devoted to interdependence and trust in a team setting ([22], [21] Salas et al. , 2004, 2005; [28] Zaccaro et al. , 2004), where ultimately, building relationships is necessary. [26] Tengblad (2006) found that executives are indeed focusing less time on administrative duties, and [7] Kanter (1989) also revealed that organizing work was becoming obsolete with changes in the environment. In a similar fashion, the present study found that â€Å"Administrative/organizational ability† seems to be less important today than it was 15 years ago. One of the reasons could correspond with the recent trend of the flattening of organizations. Organizations have become more streamlined, and responsibility has become more spread out in the organization. In effect, managers do not have a hierarchical structure to manage. The administrative tasks that were needed in more hierarchical structures 15 years ago are not needed as much in the present work context. The advent of technology has also facilitated many organizational processes that were once paper-based. More and more companies have converted to computer-based processes (i.e. online recruiting and staffing) that have minimized the necessity to focus one’s skill on administrative or organizational duties. â€Å"Time management† appears more important now than it was 15 years ago. The reasons why could coincide with changes in the work context. Technology now enables people from around the world to work in real-time, to contact people instantly, and work more quickly. E-mail has replaced mail and fax. The use of cell phones and electronic devices such as â€Å"blackberries† has also increased. At the same time, employees are focusing on creating balance between their professional lives and their personal lives, attempting to get work out of the way faster. Employees and their managers therefore must focus on time management now more than ever. The differences in importance rankings of managerial skills we observed between managers at different organizational levels confirm previous findings in the literature. [10] Kraut et al. (1989) found that some managerial roles are considered important at each level, but the degree of importance may be contingent on a particular level. In the present study, â€Å"Influencing, leadership, and power† and â€Å"Risk-taking and innovation† showed an increase in importance ranking as managerial level increased. Both of these skills are indicative of senior levels of leadership. As a manager takes on more responsibility, it is critical to the manager’s success that the manager’s focus shifts to meet the new demands of the job. Also important to note, some managerial skills differ in importance depending on managerial function and relevance. For instance, â€Å"Administrative/organizational ability† is more important to managers in administration than it is for any of the other functions because administrative ability is inherent in the administrative function. â€Å"Getting information, making sense of it; problem identification† is more important for engineering managers than it is for any of the other functions because working with information and problem identification is particularly relevant for engineers. â€Å"Communicating information and ideas† and â€Å"Risk-taking, innovation† are more important for managers in marketing than any of the other functions because those with a marketing background must be able to communicate and be innovative. Finally, â€Å"Relationships† is more important for managers in sales and HR than any of the other functions because sales and HR functions are dependent on forming and building good relationships. In effect, some skills are important to different managerial functions because of relevance of the specific organizational function. Practical applications Determining what is important for managers at each level and each function is crucial to coordinating work effectively, communicating expectations, and facilitating training and career development activities ([10] Kraut et al. , 1989). Relying on past (or outdated) information about the importance of certain managerial skills, roles, tasks, or activities could hinder effective work coordination, communication, and effective training and career development. Hence, â€Å"updating† this type of information may help managers in their work and development, even if it is to simply validate or reinforce previous findings. Imagine the challenges managers face if relevant information about the importance of certain skills in their jobs were not correct or outdated. If information from previous research from the 1970s or 1980s is still used for coordinating work activities and it has not been updated, managers may be concentrating on different or unnecessary skills that are no longer relevant. This could greatly impede their work, their advancement, and ultimately, their success. Moreover, managers may not be taught the appropriate skills for the present-day work environment that is needed to succeed if training and development relies on outdated information. For instance, [11] Lipshitz and Nevo (1992) detailed research of the competencies of effective and ineffective managers whose activities and practices aided the design of training and development programs. Knowing which managerial skills are important for different managerial levels and functions would definitely bring knowledge to improve training and development programs. Because of their rated importance, the data suggests that managerial training and development in today’s world of work may need to keep focus on communication and decision-making, decrease focus on administration and organization ability, and increase focus on enhancing relationships and the concept of time management. In addition, these findings may help those in selection and in succession planning; knowing that certain skills are important at different levels and functions can help determine what type of manager is needed at each level or each function. For instance, time management may be a skill set that is necessary particularly for first-level managers and not top-level executives, and hence, first level managers should have that appropriate skill for the job. Administrative/organizational ability may be important for managers in the administration function, and those in succession planning or selection for managers in that particular function should keep in mind that information, along with relevant information from any job analysis or competency model. Limitations and future directions There are some limitations to this study. First, asking managers to choose five of 15 skill clusters that are important to their current job does not provide the level of detail that could be obtained by evaluating the importance of each cluster using other methodologies. In the present study, a skill cluster is either among a manager’s top five most important or it is not. Therefore, the data does not permit an assessment of how much more important the top five skill clusters were than the ten skill clusters not selected. In addition, the data did not allow us to assess any relative ranking among the top five skills. As a result, it would be useful to assess the importance of clusters, competencies, roles, skills, or abilities using a Likert-type scale in the future. In this manner, researchers could examine to what extent each cluster is important to managers. Also, examining what managers believe are the most important skills for their job may not yield the same findings as asking what their direct reports or supervisors consider important. Future research should investigate what direct reports and supervisors of managers think are important skills for managers to acquire a more global perspective of managerial competencies, similar to those acquired through competency modeling (e.g. [12] Lucia and Lepsinger, 1999). Also, asking similar questions to managers outside the United States would bring more information about the importance of managerial skills across cultures. Combining the quantitative approach of evaluating to what extent a variety of skills are important for managers along with more qualitative methodologies of on-the-job observation and interviewing to assess competencies should create a more comprehensive picture of â€Å"today’s manager†. Finally, any future research should capture the demographic data for the sample across successive waves. Without knowing more about the sample composition for the first wave of data, it is not possible to ascertain whether changes over time are due to differences in organizational structure or function, differences in individual jobs represented by the sample, or differences in workforce composition. Therefore, explanations of changes cited in our findings may be due to structure changes and changes in technology or they may be due to changes in workforce demographics (i.e. aging baby-boomers). The best this research can conclude is that shifts in the importance of certain managerial skills have coincided with changes in the context of the world of work. However, with the present research data set, having a large sample of more than 7,000 managers with similar aggregate demographic data for each time period may tend to lead to more generalizable results than would a sample of a lesser number of participants. The world of work has changed over the past 15 years. Results of this study revealed that managers today feel the need to concentrate more on building relationships and time management skills and focus less on administrative and organizational ability. However, many of the skills managers thought were important to their job in the late 1980s and early 1990s are somewhat similar in importance from the opinions of managers in the first decade of the 2000s, particularly skills concerning communication and decision making. To answer the original research question, much like [26] Tengblad (2006) found, despite noticeable changes in the world of work, while some managerial skills shifted in importance, some managerial skills remain as important today as 15 years ago. The importance of these managerial skills not only coincided with the changes in the work environment, but also are context dependent based on managerial level and function. For instance, though time management has increased in importance over the years, managers at lower levels (i.e. first-level managers) seem to believe time management is more important to their job than those at higher levels (i.e. top- or executive-level managers). In essence, one should take note not only of how the importance of certain skills change over time, but also, that certain skills believed to be important for managers at one particular level or function may be more or less important for managers at other levels or other functions. 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(1988), â€Å"Mintzberg revisited: a study of chief executive officers†, Leadership & Organization Development Journal, Vol. 9 No. 6, pp. 17-21. 4. Cronbach, L.J. (1975), â€Å"Beyond the two disciplines of scientific psychology†, American Psychologist, Vol. 30, pp. 116-27. 5. DeMeuse, K.P., Bergmann, T.J., Vanderheide, P.A. and Roraaf, C.E. (2004), â€Å"New evidence regarding organizational downsizing and a firm’s financial performance: a long-term analysis†, Journal of Managerial Issues, Vol. 16, pp. 155-77. 6. Halbesleben, J.R.B., Novicevic, M.M., Harvey, M.G. and Buckley, M.R. (2003), â€Å"Awareness of temporal complexity in leadership of creativity and innovation: a competency-based model†, The Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 14, pp. 433-54. 7. Kanter, R.M. (1989), â€Å"The new managerial work†, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 67, pp. 85-92. 8. Kaplan, R.E. (1987), The Warp and Woof of the General Manager’s Job, Tech. Rep. (27), Center for Creative Leadership, Greensboro, NC. 9. 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(1979), The Looking Glass Inc. ® Simulation, Center for Creative Leadership, Greensboro, NC. 16. McKinley, W., Zhao, J. and Rust, K.G. (2000), â€Å"Sociocognitive interpretation of organizational downsizing†, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 25, pp. 227-43. 17. Miller, D.B. (1990), â€Å"Organizational, environmental, and work design strategies that foster competence†, in Willis, S.L. and Dubin, S.S. (Eds), Maintaining Professional Competence: Approaches to Career Enhancement Vitality, and Success throughout a Work Life, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA, pp. 233-48. 18. Mintzberg, H. (1973), The Nature of Managerial Work, Harper & Row, New York, NY. 19. Mintzberg, H. (1990), â€Å"The manager’s job: folklore and fact†, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 68, pp. 163-76. 20. Pearson, C. and Chatterjee, S. (2003), â€Å"Managerial roles in Asia: an empirical study of Mintzberg’s role formulation in four Asian countries†, Journal of Management Development, Vol. 22, pp. 694-707. 21. Salas, E., Sims, D.E. and Burke, C.S. (2005), â€Å"Is there a ‘Big five’ in teamwork?†, Small Group Research, Vol. 36, pp. 555-99. 22. Salas, E., Kosarzycki, M.P., Tannenbaum, S.I. and Carnegie, D. (2004), â€Å"Principles and advice for understanding and promoting effective teamwork in organizations†, in Burke, R.J. and Cooper, C. (Eds), Leading in Turbulent Times, Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA, pp. 95-120. 23. Sayles, L.R. (1979), Leadership: What Effective Managers Really Do†¦ and How They Do It, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. 24. Stewart, R. (1976), Contracts in Management, McGraw-Hill, London. 25. Stockdale, M.S. and Crosby, F.J. (2004), The Psychology and Management of Workplace Diversity, Blackwell Publishers, Malden, MA. 26. Tengblad, S. (2006), â€Å"Is there a ‘new managerial work’? A comparison with Henry Mintzberg’s classic study 30 years later†, Journal of Management Studies, Vol. 43, pp. 1437-61. 27. Wallace, P. (2004), The Internet in the Workplace: How New Technology Is Transforming Work, Cambridge University Press, New York, NY. 28. Zaccaro, S.J., Ardison, S.D. and Orvis, K.A. (2004), â€Å"Leadership in virtual teams†, in Day, D.V. and Zaccaro, S.J. (Eds), Leader Development for Transforming Organizations: Growing Leaders for Tomorrow, Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ, pp. 267-92. Appendix Corresponding author William A. Gentry can be contacted at: gentryb@leaders.ccl.org AuthorAffiliation William A. Gentry, Center for Creative Leadership, Greensboro, North Carolina, USA Lauren S. Harris, University of Georgia, Atlanta, Georgia, USA Becca A. Baker, JCPenney Co., Plano, Texas, USA Jean Brittain Leslie, Center for Creative Leadership, Greensboro, North Carolina, USA Illustration Figure 1: Importance rankings for managerial skills (2004-2006) by managerial level Figure 2: Importance rankings for managerial skills (2004-2006) by organizational function Table I: Descriptions of managerial skill clusters Table II: Overall importance rankings for managerial skills (1998-1992 and 2004-2006) Copyright Emerald Group Publishing Limited 2008

Deriving Keplers Laws of Planetary Motion

Deriving Kepler’s Laws Tanner Morrison November 16, 2012 Abstract Johannes Kepler, a world renowned mathematician and astronomer, formulated three of today’s most in? uential laws of physics. These laws describe planetary motion around the sun. Deriving these laws (excluding Kepler’s First Law) will stress the concept of planetary motion, as well as provide a clear understanding of how these laws became relevant. 1 Kepler’s First Law Kepler’s First Law states: The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci. 2 Kepler’s Second LawKepler’s Second Law states: A line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal time intervals. In more simpler terms, the rate at which the area is swept by the planet is constant ( dA = constant). dt 2. 1 Derivation Of Kepler’s Second Law To start this derivation, we will need to know how to ? nd the area that is swept out by the planet. This area is equa l to ? r A= rdrd? = 0 r2 ? 2 (1) 0 The position can be de? ned by the planetary motion. r = r cos + r sin i j (2) The velocity can then be found by taking the derivative of the position. r = (? r sin ? d? dr d? dr + cos ? )? + (r cos ? i sin ? )? j dt d? dt d? (3) As noted during the derivation of Kepler’s First Law, h is a constant, due to the fact that r ? r is a constant. h = r ? r = constant To ? nd the constant vector h evaluate the determinate that is given by the cross product of r ? r . ? ? ? ? ? i j k h=? r cos ? r sin ? 0? dr d? dr d? ?r sin ? dt + d? cos ? r cos ? dt + d? sin ? 0 Once the determinate is evaluated it can be simpli? ed to h = r2 1 d? ? k dt (4) The magnitude of this vector being (the same). |h| = r2 d? dt (5) by the de? nition of h this value is a constant. Recall that the area swept out by the planet can be described as. r A= rdrd? = 0 r2 ? 2 0 The area swept through a little change in time (dt) is then equal to r2 d? dA = dt 2 dt Notice dA dt (6) looks alot like h = r2 d? dt h dA = dt 2 Showing that a constant. 3 dA dt is constant. Showing that the area swept out by the planet is Kepler’s Third Law Kepler’s Third Law states: The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit. This derivation will show that 4 ? 2 a 2 b2 T2 = h2 3. 1 Deriving Kepler’s Third Law From the derivation of Kepler’s Second Law we know that h dA = dt 2 By using integration we can ? d the area swept out during a certain time interval (T), the period. The fundamental theorem of calculus states that the integral of the derivative is equal to the integrand, T T dA = 0 h 2 dt 0 2 by simplifying we get the area of the planetary motion h T 2 A= (7) recall that A = ? ab, inputting this into our area equation we get ? ab = h T 2 Solving for the period (T), we get 2? ab h T= By squaring this period we get, 4 ? 2 a 2 b2 h2 T2 = (8) 2 Recall the directrix of an ellipse is (d = h ) and the eccentricity of an ellipse is c c (e = GM ). Multiplying these together and simplifying we get ed = 2 e h2 = eGM GM (9) Also recall that the square of half of the major axis of an ellipse is a2 = and the square of half of the minor axis is b2 = v Consider v a2 = e2 d2 (1 ? e2 ) 2 e2 d 2 (1? e2 ) . =a= e2 d2 (1? e2 )2 Solving for a ed 1 ? e2 2 b a b2 e2 d2 (1 ? e2 ) = = ed a (1 ? e2 ) ed (10) Equating equations (9) and (10) yields h2 b2 = GM a Simplifying this we get h2 = recalling T 2 = 4? 2 a2 b2 , h2 b2 GM a (11) inserting the new found h we get T2 = 4? 2 a2 b2 a 4? 2 a3 = h2 GM GM (12) Showing that the square of the period (T 2 ) is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis (a3 ). 3

Infection Control and Hand Hygiene Literature review

Infection Control and Hand Hygiene - Literature review Example Firstly the nursing staff should be aware of the proper procedure and principles of hand hygiene. They should know the correct technique to follow it. Secondly they should have the will to follow it. They should feel morally responsible for the patients and value their life. Lastly a great deal of effort has to come from the hospital to educate the staff and supply them with proper supplies related to hand hygiene. Secondary Research This is a qualitative research on the topic infection control and hand hygiene. The purpose of the research is to discuss various issues to help understand what infection control and hand hygiene is and how the two are related. The research will look to cover range of theories and articles in order to elucidate what is being discussed. For the research, following key terms and phrases were identified: Hand hygiene nursing Hand hygiene practice Hand hygiene and infection control Hand hygiene and WHO Ways to motivate hand hygiene in hospitals hand hygiene and infection prevention Maintaining hand hygiene in hospitals Infection control and hand hygiene statistics Lack of hand hygiene in hospitals Hand hygiene compliance Hand hygiene and infection control books The above keywords and phrases were researched in different academic databases like PubMed to find suitable articles and study. A large chunk of research was done from nursing books online from reputable authors and editors. Newspaper and online articles of only trusted sources like BBC and the guardian have been included for the research. Keywords Phrases E-Books and Newspapers online Book/article Selected PubMed Articles Selected GOOGLE Database Articles Selected A Hand hygiene nursing 993 1 2,200,000 3 B Hand hygiene practice 45,500 2 1,171 2 14,400,000Â   3 C Hand hygiene and infection control 12,100 1 3,234 1 D Hand hygiene and WHO 745 1 10,700,000 2 E Ways to motivate hand hygiene in hospitals 934 2 F hand hygiene and infection prevention 27,900 1 2,483 2 6,020,000 2 G Ma intaining hand hygiene in hospitals 1,680,000 1 H Infection control and hand hygiene statistics 2,240,000 2 I Lack of hand hygiene in hospitals 1,950 1 1,420,000 3 J Hand hygiene compliance 851 4 1,550,000 2 K Hand hygiene and infection control books 1,540 4 Definition of infection control Infection control looks to prevent those who might be in danger of acquiring deadly diseases and infections. Infections could come from the community as well as from the nursing staff in case a person is already admitted to a hospital. Infections develop due to poor hygiene and the most basic aim of infection control is to counter the environment that allows unhygienic practices (WHO, 2013). Glasper and Richardson, in their book Children’s and young people’s nursing explain that for infection to occur there must be a host, a germ or bacteria that could be transferred and finally a transmitter. If any of these three things are not present then it is not possible to transmit infection (Glasper & Richardson, 2007). Nizam Damani in his book ‘infection prevention and control’ explains the two most basic ways of catching infections in hospitals. Transmission of infection comes from direct and indirect contact made to the patient.

African american ( country ghana ) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

African american ( country ghana ) - Essay Example This has been attributed to the rise in the number of Christian attending the independent African churches which has contributed to the need of other Christian sects adjusting their doctrines to suit some of the local beliefs. It is also generally believed that the Northern part of Ghana is predominantly Muslim while the southern part is predominantly Christian1. Due to the high religious tolerance in the country the major christen celebrations are recognized as holidays. These planned celebrations allow the Christian to visit their families so as to celebrate together. All the Muslims across the country observe the month of fasting which is known as Ramaddhan. While the Hindus from Hare Krsna Mandir come to chant the Hare Krsna Mahamantra and celebrate some of the important Hindu holidays. The traditional occasions are also celebrated which include the Adae festivals, Odwira festivals and Apoo festivals. The emergence of Christianity in Ghana is credited to the arrival of the Portuguese missionaries during the fifteenth century. However, it was the Wesley/Methodist and Basel/Presbyterian missionaries who came in the nineteenth century and laid the foundations of Christianity in Ghana2. This has led to most of the secondary schools today in Ghana being church or mission-related institutions. Churches have not only contributed to the education sector but also have financial responsibilities. Even with the presence of the Akan religion has more influence on the people due to its intimate relation to locals and family loyalty. This traditional cosmology bases its beliefs on the supreme god who is referred to as Nyame. Nyame who is the Supreme Being is often thought of as detached and remote from the religious daily life practices and thus not worshipped directly. The northern part of the country is predominantly is Islam. The spread of Islam in Ghana is credited to the commercial and trading activities of Muslims from the Northern region of Africa. The

The Undetected Occurrence of PTSD in Soldiers Assignment

The Undetected Occurrence of PTSD in Soldiers - Assignment Example Since soldiers are prone to exposure to various traumatic experiences in their endeavours, these traumatic events may lead to the occurrence of PTSD amongst the soldiers. Thus, this creates a need for the detection and prevention of PTSD, especially among soldiers. There exist a number of strategic interventions with regard to the occurrence of PTSD in the society (Bryant, Creamer and O’Donnell, 2009; Foa, Keane, Friedman and Cohen, 2009; Forbes, Creamer and Bisson, 2010; Sones, Thorp and Raskind, 2011; Ursano, Bell and Eth, 2004). These potential intervention measures can be divided into three. Psychological interventions offer a wide variety of intervention methods for adults with respect to the occurrence of PTSD (Gray, Maguen and Litz, 2004; Hoge, Worthington and Nagurney, 2012; Jakupcak, Roberts, Martell, Mulick, Michael and Reed, 2006; Ruzek, Brymer and Jacobs, 2007; Wood, Murphy and McLay, 2009). Thus, some of the psychological intervention methods with regard to the prevention and treatment of PTSD include psychological first aid (PFA); cognitive therapies and exposure-based therapies among other interventions. Since the occurrence of PTSD can also be attributed to biological pathways, there exist various pharmacological intervention methods (Holbrook, Galarneau and Dye, 2010; Matar, Cohen and Kaplan, 2006; McCleery and Harvey, 2004; Schelling, Roozendaal and De, 2004; Stein, Kerridge and Dimsdale, 2007). This is owed to the fact that such debriefing interventions would be geared towards providing the necessary information concerning the occurrence of PTSD amongst the soldiers (Barboza, 2005). The interventions would also create a platform for the affected soldiers to share the traumatic experiences with other concerned parties (Schnurr and Green, 2004). This would significantly contribute to the reduction of the stigmatization associated with the  occurrence of PTSD among soldiers.This implies that CISD and CISM provide a suitable intervention platform for individuals who may be affected indirectly by traumatic events such as soldiers.  

Heroine Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Heroine - Assignment Example Remarkably, the differences between the sexes are extraneous; what matters are the roles played by individuals. For instance, the female Mulan joins the battlefield and fights on her father’s account. The arty chap Xu Wei illuminates how Mulan profusely participates in the war and records a splendid performance despite being a woman. Mulan sounds badass and controversial. She appears at the war as a man, fights, wins, and goes back to carry on weaving roles that were perceived to be relished by women. Undoubtedly, her physic was that of a woman but not even her comrades could realize that she was a woman; a clear evidence that the body cannot simply be used to define gender. The line raises the question of identity, inequality, and being real to oneself in the facade of execution and persecution. Despite her sex, she participates in unlikely activities, a factor that makes her appear as though concealing her identity and true self. This is over and above the modest question of

Education High School Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Education High School - Article Example In this respect, education is not imparted by the teacher but should be developed by giving activities which enables students to think. The article stresses that so often, students are given the materials containing the information which they should memorize robbing them of the time to really develop their mental abilities. In essence, the article emphasizes that the role of the teacher is to "elicit from the pupil what is latent" in every human being and this is the rule of reason. Instead of being sausages, it sees pupils as oysters and the teachers duty is for the finest pearls to develop from within. With my current point of view, the article is an eye-opener for me. Having believed all my life that students are empty sausages where education is filled in throughout their lifetime, I must say that reading the article shows learning in a new light. To be honest, it came as a shock because I have always believed that teachers do really have to infuse knowledge that students should absorb. However, a deeper probe makes me realize that in learning, the student take a more active role than the teacher. Thinking things through, I agree with the article that knowledge should not be stuffed but should be elicited from the pupils. As the article stresses, each of us has the latent ability to reason. Every born individual has a functioning mind when he is born and should be developed as he matures. When a child reaches three years old, I have observed from my experience that he can give reasons to defend himself when his behavior is questioned. Even though this behavior is repressed in some societies, the child still learns to reason and defend his actions even to elders. This personal observation makes me realize that yes; each of us has the ability to reason which should be the most important tool in acquiring all the knowledge that through our interaction with the teachers. Eliciting knowledge from the student then calls for a unique way of teaching and learning. In the part of the teacher, eliciting knowledge then becomes much more complicated than just assigning readings and books for the students to read. I believe that Plato has modeled the classic way of bringing out and refining the reasoning skills of an individual through dialectic. In this method, the teacher asks the students probing questions which makes them think and rethink. Having been in the time where Sophists are the influential teachers, this method has been repressed by the society. However, this type of knowledge cultivation produced two of the most influential thinkers that we know today, Socrates and Aristotle serving as a proof that this method works. And I believe that this teaching method can still be applied in today's world. However, I also have concerns with the advancement of technology which now provide more avenues for the students to learn. If technological development can be utilized in such a way that it does not solely present the information that one needs but will nurture a pupil's ability to think and analyze, then it will be most efficient.

See the upload Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

See the upload - Essay Example In case these aspects are lacking, management education and management will have a very thin chance of surviving in society. When someone thinks of management, he or she should view it as both public and private work that is necessary for the sustenance of society thus considered as public matter. Management is related to the public and private works, which motivates students to work hard to become future managers and incorporate these ideas in their organizational life. This kind of thinking will influence students to understand the real meaning of corporate citizenship. Corporate citizenship is the situation whereby the organization is applying management to public work. Global corporate citizenship is governed by the idea of public work and practically applicable to managers and educators. When globalization and information technology integrate, leads to success of the business. The idea of global corporate citizenship in management brings unity among people with problems in society and organizations come up with solutions through application of contemporary management skills and knowledge. The distinction of private work from public is dangerous and disastrous since it deprives people from sharing ideas thus undermining social fabric. It is important to understand the con nection between public and private works. Life and work are part of human daily activities but when viewed from an organizational perspective, organizations seem to distinguish work from life. In some situations when life is used incorporate families and community, separation and specialization facilitate effectiveness at high social costs. Public work are the main foundation of the community’s’ capital since it starts where people are working together in every day environment. In addition, this public work brings the importance of civic purposes among people thus enabling

Media and war on Terror Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Media and war on Terror - Essay Example The government on the other hand used the media to counter the information and claims distributed by terrorists. Through the media, governments also wages a war of winning the hearts and minds of the people by letting the public know how terrorist organizations are causing havoc in our society. In so doing, they erode public sympathy from the terrorist potential supported. Having said this, media inadvertently becomes an instrument of the tugging parties on the war on terror. Media and terrorism will always have a symbiotic relationship because media will feed on the news created by terrorists. The â€Å"juicy† news that terrorists will provide increases the news agency’s rating while terrorist organization gained media exposure to win public sympathy and support. This kind of set-up inadvertently forms a symbiotic relationship whereby each entity thrives on the existence of the other. Media benefits in either way. When terrorists organization issues a threat, media increases its ratings by sensationalizing it and when government counters to continue our way of life so as to deprive the terrorist of their victory, the media again has something â€Å"juicy† to report to increase its

Love and Soul Mate Essay Example for Free

Love and Soul Mate Essay Knowing that I would get to spend the rest of my life with my best friend is the best feeling EVER! Even after being married for years, my love still grows every day! I know I am with my soul mate and still can’t believe we have made it and have overcome so much in our life Knowing that I would get to spend the rest of my life with my best friend is the best feeling EVER! Even after being married for years, my love still grows every day! I know I am with my soul mate and still can’t believe we have made it and have overcome so much in our life njkj kj kj Knowing that I would get to spend the rest of my life with my best friend is the best feeling EVER! Even after being married for years, my love still grows every day! I know I am with my soul mate and still can’t believe we have made it and have overcome so much in our lifeKnowing that I would get to spend the rest of my life with my best friend is the best feeling EVER! Even after being married for years, my love still grows every day! I know I am with my soul mate and still can’t believe we have made it and have overcome so much in our lifeKnowing that I would get to spend the rest of my life with my best friend is the best feeling EVER! Even after being married for years, my love still grows every day! I know I am with my soul mate and still can’t believe we have made it and have overcome so much in our life Knowing that I would get to spend the rest of my life with my best friend is the best feeling EVER! Even after being married for years, my love still grows every day! I know I am with my soul mate and still can’t believe we have made it and have overcome so much in our life

Endotracheal Intubation to Supraglottic Airway Device

Endotracheal Intubation to Supraglottic Airway Device Discussion Response 1 Much debate has occurred recently about high failure rates and adverse effects associated with pre-hospital paramedic endotracheal intubation. Should ETT be removed entirely and replaced with supraglottic airways? Maintaining an airway in a safe and effective manner is critical in pre-hospital management of the patient in respiratory distress. The debate regarding the most appropriate device to manage this situation in the pre-hospital setting will continue as devices and education and training of paramedics continues to improve. This discussion compares the failure rates and adverse effects of endotracheal intubation to supraglottic airway devices and discusses the possibility of removal of endotracheal tubes in favour of the use of supraglottic airways. The indications for endotracheal intubation for Victorian Paramedics are cardiac arrest, respiratory arrest, GCS greater than or equal to 10 with suspected airway burns (a consult is required), GCS less than 10 due to respiratory failure, neurological injury, overdose, status epilepticus, hyperglycaemia with blood glucose level reading high or suspected airway burns. The paramedic requires clinical experience to recognise the 5 main indicators for intubation failure to ventilate, failure to oxygenate, inability to protect against aspiration, inability to maintain airway patency or predicting patient deterioration to respiratory failure (Lafferty Dillinger, 2016). Intubation success rates range from 69% to 98.4% the variation accounts for the level of education, training and case exposure. The success rate or lack thereof is directly proportional to the amount of education, training and case exposure received (Jacobs Grabinsky, 2014 and Piegeler, et al., 2016). In Australian studies it was found that Victorian HEMS based paramedics who underwent extensive training that included hospital based practice (Bernard S. A., et al., 2015) attained 97% (Bernard S. , Smith, Foster, Hogan, Patrick, 2002) 100% (Andrew, et al., 2015) success rate. These intubations showed improvements with oxygen saturation, end tidal carbon dioxide levels, blood pressure (Bernard S. , Smith, Foster, Hogan, Patrick, 2002) and pain scores (Andrew, et al., 2015). There is a recommendation from the European Resuscitation Council that only well trained and experienced paramedics should perform endotracheal intubation and alternate airway devices should be used by less trai ned paramedics (Schalk, et al., 2012). Failure to maintain competency of this skill increases the risk of errors eliminating the benefits of endotracheal intubation and results in a negative patient outcome (Tiah, et al., 2014). Endotracheal intubation is performed to ensure adequate ventilation and oxygenation also to avoid aspiration of gastric contents or blood during cardiopulmonary resuscitation (Piegeler, et al., 2016) and when the airway is threatened due to oedema in the setting of facial burns or suspected inhalation burns (Price Milner, 2012). Improved patient outcomes were demonstrated when endotracheal intubation was successfully achieved compared to those with a supraglottic device, there was a higher incidence of return of spontaneous circulation, survival to hospital admission, neurologically intact, survival to hospital discharge. (Benoit, Gerecht, Steuerwald, McMullan, 2015). Temporary harm from airway management is common however serious injury is not (Cook MacDougall-Davis, 2012). Complications attributed to endotracheal intubation are commonly hoarseness and sore throat, however patients can also experience lip swelling, laceration and bleeding, tongue laceration and bleeding, oral bleeding, dental damage, gingival bleeding, and pharyngeal bleeding (Toda, Toda, Arakawa, 2013). Failed intubation is associated with oxygen desaturation, hypertension, admission to ICU and complications at extubating (Cook MacDougall-Davis, 2012). The risks associated with out of hospital endotracheal intubation are pulmonary aspiration, delay in transport due to several attempts, tube misplacement or difficult airway management. In these cases, where an invasive and time consuming technique may delay definitive care it may be more appropriate to utilise a supraglottic airway device as an alternative (Piegeler, et al., 2016). The indications for the use of a supraglottic airway device are unconscious patient without gag reflex, ineffective ventilation with BVM and oro- or nasal-pharyngeal airway, predicted greater than 10 minutes assisted ventilation required, or unable to intubate or difficult intubation (Ambulance Victoria, 2016). Many studies indicate a less than 1% failure rate of supraglottic airway devices (Cook MacDougall-Davis, 2012) this is due to the lower education and training requirement and the device being less invasive (Jacobs Grabinsky, 2014). The failure rates were contributed to airway soiling and aspiration before paramedic treatment commenced. Proficiency of use is quickly attained (Haske, Schempf, Gaier, Niederberger, 2013), the device is faster to insert with higher success rate (Duckett, Fell, Kimber, Taylor, 2014) decreasing interruptions during a cardiac arrest and ventilation is possible with continuous compressions (Haske, Schempf, Gaier, Niederberger, 2013). The i-gel is a 2nd generation supraglottic airway device that exerts very low pressures on the pharyngeal mucosa resulting in low incidence of airway complication such as hoarseness and sore throat (Michalek, 2013). The major concerns of the use of any supraglottic airway device is the potential for air leak, airway, vocal cord and soft tissue injury, hypoxemia, and hypercapnia (Jacobs Grabinsky, 2014) and aspiration of gastric contents (Piegeler, et al., 2016). This generation of device is designed with a channel to insert a gastric tube to drain the stomach contents or air (Michalek, 2013) to prevent aspiration. Comparing placement success and time to ventilate when comparing unassisted endotracheal intubation and supraglottic airway device (Frascone, et al., 2011), hospital admission and survival to hospital discharge, and neurological or functional status (Tiah, et al., 2014) there is no significant difference between the two types of devices (Frascone, et al., 2011 and Tiah, et al., 2014). In the metropolitan setting of paramedic practice there is a solid argument for the cessation of endotracheal use in favour of a supraglottic device. The low level of education and training required to ensure proficiency, fast insertion time and the addition of the gastric tube channel along with the shorter transport times to definitive care indicates that a supraglottic airway is most appropriate airway device. References Ambulance Victoria. (2016). Clinical Practice Guidelines for Ambulance and MICA Paramedics (Revised Edition ed.). Doncaster, Victoria, Australia: Ambulance Victoria. Retrieved March 19, 2017 Andrew, E., de Wit, A., Meadley, B., Cox, S., Bernard, S., Smith, K. (2015, July/September). Characteristics of patients transported by a paramedic-staffed helicopter emergency medical service in Victoria, Australia. Prehospital Emergency Care, 19(3), 416 424. doi:10.3109/10903127.2014.995846 Benoit, J. L., Gerecht, R. B., Steuerwald, M. T., McMullan, J. T. (2015). Endotracheal intubation versus supraglottic airway placement in out-of-hospital cardiac arret: A meta-analysis. Resuscitation, 93, 20 26. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2015.05.007 Bernard, S. A., Smith, K., Porter, R., Jones, C., Gailey, A., Cresswell, B., . . . St Clair, T. (2015). Paramedic rapid sequence intubation in patients with non-traumatic coma. Emergency Medicine Journal, 32, 60 64. doi:10.1136/emermed-2013-202930 Bernard, S., Smith, K., Foster, S., Hogan, P., Patrick, I. (2002, December). The use of rapid sequence intubation by ambulance paramedics for patients with severe head injury. Emergency Medicine Australasia, 14(4), 406 411. doi:10.1046/j.1442-2026.2002.00382 Bernhard, M., Mohr, S., A., W. M., Martin, E., Walther, A. (2012, February). Developing the skill of endotracheal intubation: implication for emergency medicine. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica, 56(2), 164 171. doi:10.1111/j.1399-6576.2011.02547 Cook, T. M., MacDougall-Davis, S. R. (2012). Complications and failure of airway management. British Journal of Anaesthesia, 109(S1), i68 i85. doi:10.1093/bja/aes393 Duckett, J., Fell, P., Kimber, C., Taylor, C. (2014). Introduction of the i-gel supraglottic airway device for prehospital airway management in a UK ambulance service. Emergency Medicine Journal, 31, 505 507. doi:10.1136/emermed-2012-202126 Frascone, R. J., Russi, C., Lick, C., Conterato, M., Wewerka, S. S., Griffith, K. R., . . . Salzman, J. G. (2011). Comparison of prehospital insertion success rates and time to insertion between standard endotracheal intubation and supraglottic airway. Resuscitation, 82, 1529 1536. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2011.07.009 Haske, D., Schempf, B., Gaier, G., Niederberger, C. (2013). Performance of the i-gel during pre-hospital cardiopulmonary resiscitation. Resuscitation, 564, 72 77. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2013.04.025 Jacobs, P., Grabinsky, A. (2014, January March). Advances in prehospital airway management. International Journal of Critical Illness and Injury Science, 4(1), 57 64. doi:10.4103/2229-5151.128014 Lafferty, K. A., Dillinger, R. (2016, December 30). Rapid Sequence Intubation. (R. P. Byrd, Ed.) Retrieved March 19, 2017, from Medscape: http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/80222-overview#a1 Michalek, P. D. (2013). The I-Gel Supraglottic Airway. Nova Science Publishing Inc. Retrieved March 3, 2017, from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/vu/detail.action?docID=3022405 Piegeler, T., Roessler, B., Goliasch, G., Fischer, H., Schlaepfer, M., Lang, S., Ruetzler, K. (2016, May). Evaluation of six different airway devices regarding regurgitation and pulmonary aspiration during cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) A human cadaver pilot study. Resuscitation, 102, 70 74. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2016.02.17 Price, L. A., Milner, S. M. (2012). The totality of burn care. Trauma, 15(1), 16 28. doi:10.1177/1460408612462311 Schalk, R., Auhuber, T., Haller, O., Latasch, L., Wetzel, S., Weber, C. F., . . . Byhahn, C. (2012, January). Implementation of the laryngeal tube for prehospital airway management: training of 1,069 emergency physicians and paramedics. Der Anaethesist, 61(1), 35 40. doi:10.1007 Tiah, L., Kajino, K., Alsakaf, O., Bautista, D. C., Ong, M., Lie, D., . . . Gan, H. N. (2014, November). Does Pre-hospital Endotracheal Intubation Improve Survival in Adults with Non-traumatic Out-of hospital Cardiac Arrest? A Systematic Review. Western Journal of Emergency Medicine, XV(7), 749 757. doi:10.5811/westjem.2014.9.20291 Toda, J., Toda, A. A., Arakawa, J. 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